Furthermore, this process has not been widely tested for reliability or validity. These tests produced the first published data that supported fire patterns as being useful in fire investigation. These studies contended that the use of the heat and flame vector analysis enabled the investigator to determine the true area of origin. Fire Pattern Investigation of automotive fires often involves the interpretation of burn or heat damage patterns on the vehicle body, in the engine compartment, passenger compartment (interior), or cargo space. In 2011 three test fires were conducted that varied between single and multiple ventilation openings (Claflin 2014). Every fire investigation text, including NFPA 921, uses shapes to describe the characteristics of the lines of demarcation associated with plume-generated patterns. (1997)) and Gorbett et al. However, the visible and measurable observations used in identifying the varying degree of charring have had many misconceptions. Next, the participants were provided with depth of char measurements for all content items and depth of calcination measurements for all of the walls for the same compartment fire and were asked to re-examine the photographs and select an area of origin again. This quote, however, is not to generalize that the area of origin is to be equated with the area of greatest thermal damage outside of this specific test series. A better definition is warranted for this term. This type of damage was noted in the USFA study with specificity (Shanley et al. Proceedings of the 17th International Systems Safety Conference, Unionville, VA, Ettling B (1990) The Significance of Alligatoring of Wood Char. However, no procedural details were provided on how to implement the analysis. However, Kirk also identifies many of the very common complications that can arise, which will distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). Therefore, no systematic scale for the degree of damage had been proposed or adopted. His findings indicate that gypsum wallboard was the only material that could be reliably used for predicting intensity and duration purposes. Investigations Institute, Florida (USA), Hopkins R, Gorbett G, Kennedy P (2009) Fire Pattern Persistence Through Post-Flashover Compartment Fires. 1997). (1997)) reported one of the driving factors for the lack of a plume-generated fire pattern associated with the origin in a chair was due to the chair being placed approximately 18-inches away from the wall. 1. Finally, the study was conducted with a variety of digital cameras and they found that the optical properties were not dependent on the camera used. A conical pattern has been characterized as one that is produced when the interacting buoyant fire plume is restricted by an intersecting horizontal surface, spreading the heat across the bottom of the obstructing surface. The walls and ceiling were lined with gypsum wallboard. These photographs and annotations are provided to illustrate the burn pattern . Fire Safety Journal 4:281292, Babrauskas V (2005) Charring rate of wood as a tool for fire investigations. Prominent forensic scientist, Paul Kirk (1969), wrote in support of using depth of char for fire investigation in the following, variations in depth of the char will inevitably be notedand that this feature of the fire is of primary importance. Pearson, New Jersey (USA), DeHaan J (1987) Are Localized Burns Proof of Flammable Liquid Accelerants? Underwriters Laboratories, Illinois (USA), Kerber S, Walton W (2005) Effect of Positive Pressure Ventilation on a Room Fire. Given the history of using fire patterns within the fire investigation profession, it was reasonable that they would also be included in the first edition (1992), and all subsequent editions of NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Carman attributed the failure to the lack of understanding by the investigation profession of the differences between pre- and post-flashover fire behavior and resulting damage. 2005; Morvan et al. They are examples only, not models. Surface effect is the result of the nature and material of the surface which contains the fire pattern, affecting the actual shape of the lines of demarcation displayed, or increasing Specifically, the hypothesis that carpet pad seams could mimic the floor fire patterns previously attributed to ignitable liquid pours was examined. The deposition of smoke/soot onto surface linings and contents within an enclosure stems from the following: Fluid flows Temperature and velocity of the gases colliding with cooler surfaces (thermophoretic forces). (0.91m2.1m). He contends that damage should just be viewed as data and the investigator must resist the temptation to interpret the meaning of individual fire effects and fire patterns in isolation (Cox 2013). Several recent studies have provided processes to assist in the objective identification of the varying degrees of damage, including a degree of fire damage scale for visible damage (Gorbett et al. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. 2013). Saito (1993); Williamson, et al. One common type of fire pattern is plume-generated patterns, the lines that come from the three-dimensional shape of the fire plume being cut by an interweaving two-dimensional surface, such as a ceiling or wall. Andrew Cox (2013) argues that both the generic causal factors and the contextual circumstances should be considered when interpreting the cause of the damage. Paper presented at the Fire and Materials Conference. The researchers discuss that similar truncated cone patterns were identified in the first eight tests (Gorbett et al. However, this report also demonstrated that in two tests, distinctive patterns were produced which without careful study and a full understanding of all factors which influenced the progress and growth of the fire, could easily be interpreted to indicate incorrect or multiple origins (Shanley et al. Encyclopedia Britannica Company, Chicago, www.Merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pattern, Pitts W (1994) The Global Equivalence Ratio Concept and the Prediction of Carbon Monoxide Formation in Enclosure Fires. The first published fire pattern tests was in 1984 (Custer and Wright 1984). NOTE: As you go higher and higher in timeframes, the volatility increase caused by the breakout is harder and harder to detect, because the news which cause those breakouts have a smaller effect on higher timeframes, but the pattern is still valid, because a large enough breakout will always trigger a pullback of some sort! Areas along the wall surfaces that were white in color directly adjacent to areas of significant soot deposition were found within this series of tests to be attributed to the oxidation of the soot from the surface (i.e. This study focused on the effects where the paper had been burned away (consumed) and where the paper had been peeled up (penetration). and more. Thermocouple data and total heat flux gauges were used as instrumentation for all three burns. Google Scholar, Babrauskas V (1981) Will the second item ignite? Therefore, determining if and when the fire transitions from a fuel-controlled to a ventilation-controlled condition is an important distinction. Abib and Jaluria (1992a, b) showed that the entering airflow could cause mixing through wall flows and mixing to occur opposite the ventilation opening with a single doorway. Fire occurs due to the exothermic reaction of combustion (burning), producing heat and light. DeHaan elaborated on the characteristics associated with this damage as being generally level, that is, of uniform height from the floorchanges in the level indicate points of ventilation and the level will often drop markedly in the vicinity of the point of origin (DeHaan 1983). A clean burn area of damage was located at the area of origin only with the fire with the shortest duration of full room involvement burning. This will leave a series of burned studs, which serve as pointers or arrows to trace the fire (Kennedy 1959). char, are all descriptions of damage caused by a. Springer Nature. NUREG-0492, Von Winterfeldt D, Edwards W (1986) Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research. The first use of the term pattern was in 1969 by Kirk when discussing the normal behavior of heated gases. Combustion Science and Technology 39:195214, Dillon S (1998) Analysis of the ISO 9705 Room/Corner Test: Simulations, Correlations and Heat Flux Measurements. 2004). 2006; Hicks et al. The fire was allowed to burn in post-flashover conditions for approximately 2min. smoke, aerosols). Scene photograph of suspected ignitable liquid pour (Wood et al. Later in a fires development, an upper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the wall and ceiling surfaces. 2, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th edn. These white areas were similar in appearance to clean burn patterns at first glance, but were shown upon closer examination to be differentiated based on smeared, directional appearance with observable water drip marks. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST-GCR-98-756, Gaithersburg, MD, Donegan H (2008) Decision Analysis. Conversely, as the smoke moves away from the room of origin the temperatures will decrease, which causes the smoke to descend within the compartment causing lighter soot to deposit across the entire elevation of wall surfaces. share common damage characteristics for the damage to transition from simply random areas of damage to being classified as a pattern requires that the damages are clustered near to each other and that the characteristics of the damage are similar. walls) in the form of a funnel or cone with the vertex at the bottom. Illustrations from this first discussion are still found today in the current edition of NFPA 921 showing a cross-section of a floor with greater beveling or loss of mass indicating direction (NFPA 2014). Because the varying DOFD serves as the foundation for all later interpretations, ultimately leading to an origin determination, more research is needed to either demonstrate that investigators reliably identify varying DOFD or the industry needs processes that are shown to be reliable and valid (Gorbett and Chapdelaine 2014). No studies have been conducted specifically to evaluate these patterns, however, some characteristics of these patterns have been identified in other fire pattern studies. For example, the location of fire department entry, the use of positive pressure ventilation and the change of ventilation upon arrival should result in fire patterns that are similar to ventilation-generated fire patterns. [1] In this graph the axes would be availability of intuition (being th Y-axis) and level of expertise (being the X-axis), instead of the skill level (being the Y-axis) and time (being the X-axis). Muscular strength develops and recedes over time because of necessity; one example of this is a baby learning to walk. Kirk being one of the few texts at the time that opposed this idea when declaring flammable liquids never carry fire downward (Kirk 1969). The related lines of demarcation are ensuring that the area being called a pattern have associated boundaries or lines of demarcation. Gottuk (1992) reports sustained external burning occurring at values around 1.4 +/0.4, but other research has reported extension of flames outside the compartment starting at values of 0.7 (Wieczorek et al. Wood stud wall with varying DOFD char damage, Depth of char contour plot of wood stud wall depicted in Fig. Each test fire was conducted for 10min, with the door opened at 5min. The high temperature gases and soot in the upper layer influences the patterns formed on lining materials of the compartment and contents. Quintiere and McCaffrey (1980) showed that near-opening mixing associated with the cold, incoming air flow entraining the hot gas is an issue that would be a potential cause for near-to or adjacent damage occurring on surfaces next to ventilation openings. Characteristics of the damage linked with ventilation-generated patterns during ventilation-controlled conditions are large surface areas of damage, increased magnitude of damage, damage found near unsealed drywall seams and angled lines of demarcation located around the ventilation opening or directly opposite of a door opening. Example of a Heat and Flame Vector Analysis Diagram (fire origin located in center of couch-fire test conducted at EKU by author). Flashcards. The only point of contention then would be the manner and reason in which the ventilation opening was created. truncated cone patterns. The following statistics were accumulated while performing the literature review and summarized here for VG fire patterns. In the early stages of a fire and through fuel-controlled conditions, the production of the incomplete combustion byproducts (HCN, CO, UHCs) is typically minor. Other areas of damage can surround the pattern, but the pattern must have characteristics that allow the limits of it to be individually identified. Cambridge University Press, New York (USA), Lattimer B (2008) Heat Fluxes from Fires to Surfaces. 2006; Hicks et al. As expected, the results indicated that the patterns generated by the polyurethane foam fire had greater uncertainty than the natural gas and gasoline pool fires. doi:10.1128/AEM.02526-07, Jowsey A (2007) Fire Imposed Heat Fluxes for Structural Analysis. as the height of the plume increases what happens to the width. What are the 4 elements of extinguishment? Director, Fire Investigation Specialist. Fire Sci Rev 4, 4 (2015). His work also determined that the height of the plume damage was within 5% of the mean visible flame heights for the natural gas burner and gasoline fires. The resulting damage appears to be angled lines of demarcation with the lower end of the line of demarcation being nearest the source of the smoke flow (Fig. However, other texts of the time indicated that damage to floor was an indicator of arson (Battle and Weston 1960; Fitch and Porter 1968). Terms and Conditions, Combustion and Flame 132:157159, Pennsylvania (USA), Sugawa O, Kawagoe K, Oka K, Ogahara I (1989) Burning behavior in a poorly ventilated compartment fire ghosting fire. These photographs and annotations are provided to illustrate the burn pattern indicated. Department of Fire Protection Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA, Gregory E Gorbett,Brian J Meacham,Christopher B Wood&Nicholas A Dembsey, Department of Fire Protection and Paramedicine Sciences, Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation Program, Eastern Kentucky University, 521 Lancaster Avenue, Richmond, KY, 40475, USA, FireLink, LLC, 1501 Main Street, Suite 17, Tewksbury, MA, 01876, USA, You can also search for this author in The researchers stated that one of the objectives of their tests was to determine if burn patterns in the room were consistent with the origin or location of the external fire (Hoffmann et al. A common maximum recorded heat flux in a postflashover compartment fire is 170kW/m2 (NFPA 2014). Noted differences with this level line of demarcation are damage in corners and near ventilation openings. However, all of this is dependent on the burning regime and where combustion is actually taking place at the point in time during the fire when the fuel was ignited. The fundamental items within the definition that may assist in better defining the term fire pattern is that patterns are something that happens in regular and repeated ways with characteristic features. Investigations Institute, Illinois (USA), Kennedy J (1977) Fire, Arson and Explosion Investigation. 1977; Brannigan et al. There are numerous factors that may influence how a material is affected by heat and exposure to incomplete combustion products (e.g. (2010) do not find this similar effect when performing studies in compartments where the ventilation openings are connected to adjacent compartments, not directly to the exterior. During a fully involved compartment fire or when a compartment fire is ventilation-controlled, more complete combustion is achieved at those locations where the mixture is adequate. Airflow from a ventilation opening has been shown in previous compartment fire studies to cause flames to lean over significantly and that the influence of this factor decreases as the plume is moved back away from the vent (Steckler et al. The fire pattern studies revealed that specific damage cues identified during fuel-controlled conditions were not as prevalent during ventilation-controlled conditions. 2006). Fire Research Station Note No. Areas of demarcation are locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics (e.g. In their report, authored by its Research Council on Post-Fire Investigation, they recommended, if patterns are to be used for origin and cause determination, forensic methods to identify the specific source of a pattern need to be developed and rigorously vetted (NFPA, 2002, p.5). 2006; Hopkins et al. This was the first published work that outlined how to develop a legend and diagram as demonstrative aids for applying the heat and flame vector analysis. Again, Kennedy makes the argument that the investigator needs to identify the greatest area of damage. Section 2, Ch. The early texts on fire investigations promoted the use of identifying the varying degree of charring throughout the compartment to assist with origin determination. Heat shadowing and protected areas were shown to assist investigators in determining that the fire did not originate behind certain contents (Shanley et al. Fire investigation (origin and cause determination) is an integral part of the total fire safety model, including fire prevention and protection for a community. Ventilation-Generated Fire Pattern near open doorway (fire origin located across room-fire test conducted at EKU by author). and/or including victims. The level of damage was varied based on the visible appearance of the number of cracks within set distances and the widths of those cracks. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineers, NFPA, MA, Wieczorek C, Vandsburger U, Floyd J (2004) An evaluation of the global equivalence ratio concept for compartment fires: data analysis methods. 923, Tinsley A, Gorbett G (2013) Fire Investigation Origin Determination Survey. (3.48m3.58m) with a ceiling height of 8ft (2.4m). Science 185:11241131, Kawagoe K (1958) Fire Behavior in Rooms. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Poster presented at the International Association of Arson Investigators Annual Training Conference, Florida (USA), Barracato J (1979) Fireis it arson? Drywall repairs, as well as tape and mud between drywall seams or the lack of this material may alter the observations of damage in these areas and will need to be considered. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). National Institute of Justice, Grant # 2007-DN-BX-K240, Wood C, Simeoni A, Foley R (2012) Preliminary Results of the Effect of Carpet Pad Seams Compared to Ignitable Liquid Pours, Floor Fire Patterns in Post-Flashover Fires, Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. Fire research station, Fire Research Note No. For example, an investigator would assign a number 5 char level to a piece of wood that had the number of cracks occurring up to 2 per centimeter with widths approximately the thickness of a five-cent piece (Keith and Smith 1984). The search for patterns starts at the very widest part of the V or U shape, the outside of the fire's burn path. The literature review is limited to structure fire studies. The background section establishes the foundation for the organization of this paper. These two studies demonstrated a relatively predictable response of visible damage to the gypsum wallboard consistent with the varying DOFD identified in NFPA 921 (Figs. Shanley et al. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 9:3235, Crofton, MD, Taylor R (1986) Flammable and Combustible Liquid Characteristics in Certain Types of Fires Part 2. Kennedy (1959) relates that wooden joists or studding are exposed to burningthe sides exposed to the direction from which the fire is coming will be more severely burned and charred. The only method that appears to be systematized and examples provided was the truncated cone method in conjunction with the heat and flame vector analysis (Kennedy and Kennedy 1985). The only point of contention then would be the manner in which the ventilation opening was created. Several studies have shown that the depth of calcination reliably indicates intensity and duration of heat exposure. In fuel-controlled conditions, cues 1 and 2 were the most positively identified in 80% of the studies (20/25), cue 3 was identified in 60% of the studies (15/25), and cue 4 was only identified in 48% of the studies (12/25). In addition, if these gases were undergoing flaming combustion as they exited the opening, thermal damage to the wall surface is expected to follow the same theory (DeHaan and Icove 2011). 2009). The tool is built around a digital indicator gauge commonly used in machining. The definition of fire effects became observable or measurable changes in or on a material as the result of a fire (NFPA 2008). The job of a forensic scientist is to provide scientific evidence, notably the analysis of scientific or engineering data, to the justice system in order to reduce uncertainty (Taroni et al. Fire effects are the physical or chemical changes that occur to different materials when exposed to the byproducts of combustion (e.g. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 15:1619, Crofton, MD, Theobald C (1968) The Critical Distance for Ignition From Some Items of Furniture. Thus, the lining materials for the walls, ceiling and floor, as well as the various materials that make up the contents within the compartment, are damaged by this exposure to the products of combustion. Heat and flame vector Analysis enabled the investigator needs to identify the greatest area of origin by Kirk when the! ( 1986 ) Decision Analysis and Behavioral Research products ( e.g multiple ventilation openings ( Claflin )... 1987 ) are Localized Burns Proof of Flammable Liquid Accelerants NFPA 921, shapes. In Rooms foundation for the organization of this paper layer begins to form and starts transferring heat to the reaction! 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